THE CRUSADES TO THE HOLY LAND
"Undertake this journey for the remission of your sins,
with the assurance of the imperishable glory of the Kingdom of Heaven!" 1
with the assurance of the imperishable glory of the Kingdom of Heaven!" 1
Pope Urban II, in one of history's most powerful speeches, launched 200 years of the Crusades at the Council of Clermont, France on November 27, 1095 with this impassioned plea. In a rare public session in an open field, he urged the knights and noblemen to win back the Holy Land, to face their sins, and called upon those present to save their souls and become "Soldiers of Christ." Those who undertook the venture were to wear an emblem in the shape of a red cross on their body. And so derived the word "Crusader," from the Latin word cruciare - to mark with a cross. By the time his speech ended, the captivated audience began shouting "Deus le volt! - God wills it!" The expression became the battle-cry of the crusades. 2, 3
This brief paper will review the background that led to this momentous event in world history; the actual crusades themselves; and conclude with a reflection on the aftermath of the crusades and the relevance to our world today.
THE BACKGROUND OF THE CRUSADES
Why did Pope Urban II call for the recapture of the Holy Land? Three reasons are primarily given for the beginning of the Crusades: (1) to reclaim the Land of Christ and stop Muslim aggression; (2) to heal the rift between Roman and Orthodox Christianity following the Schism of 1054; and (3) to marshal the energy of the constantly warring feudal lords and knights into the one cause of "penitential warfare." 1-8
Muslim Aggression
The Romans, with the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD, named the lands of the birthplace of Christ Palestine. The Holy Land has always been the spiritual home and symbol of the Christian faith. Following Constantine's Edict of Milan in 313 ending Christian persecution, pilgrimages to Jerusalem became safe for those who had the means of travel.
The founding of Islam by Muhammad (570-632) changed the complexion of the Middle East. The concept of holy war, or jihad, to expand religious aims was embraced by the followers of Islam. The Muslims captured Jerusalem in 638, and the Patriarchates of Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria were placed under the control of the Caliphates. However, Islam proved a tolerant religion in victory, in keeping with the teachings of Muhammad. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem was allowed to remain Christian, and Christians were allowed to practice their religion with the payment of a special tax, called the jizya. The Moslem invasion captured the eastern part of the Byzantine empire but twice they were held off at Constantinople, decisively in 717 by Emperor Leo III. 1, 4, 5, 7, 8
The founding of Islam by Muhammad (570-632) changed the complexion of the Middle East. The concept of holy war, or jihad, to expand religious aims was embraced by the followers of Islam. The Muslims captured Jerusalem in 638, and the Patriarchates of Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria were placed under the control of the Caliphates. However, Islam proved a tolerant religion in victory, in keeping with the teachings of Muhammad. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem was allowed to remain Christian, and Christians were allowed to practice their religion with the payment of a special tax, called the jizya. The Moslem invasion captured the eastern part of the Byzantine empire but twice they were held off at Constantinople, decisively in 717 by Emperor Leo III. 1, 4, 5, 7, 8
By the next century, Islam under the Umayyad Dynasty extended all the way from India through Morocco into Spain. It was only their defeat by Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours near Poitiers in 732 that stopped the Western European advance of Muslim forces. But the Reconquista of Spain, or the unification of Spain under Christian rule, was not completed until the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, when Granada was captured from the Moors on January 2, 1492. 3, 5, 8
Events turned for the worse in the East, however, in the beginning of the eleventh century.
The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, which was completed in 335 on the site of Christ's crucifixion, burial, and resurrection, was destroyed in 1009 by Hakim, the Fatimid Caliph of Egypt. A new wave of Muslim aggression by the Seljuk Turks led to Christian persecution in the Holy Land and the invasion of the Byzantine Empire. The defeat of the Byzantines at the decisive Battle of Manzikert in 1071 gave the Seljuk Turks possession of Asia Minor. Nicaea and then Antioch fell to the Turks. Constantinople was vulnerable, and pilgrimages to the Holy Land abruptly ended. This led Byzantine Emperor Alexius I Comnenus to appeal to Pope Urban II for help. The Emperor sent his emissaries to the Pope's Council of Piacenza in the March of 1095, with a request for knights to defend the East.1-8
The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, which was completed in 335 on the site of Christ's crucifixion, burial, and resurrection, was destroyed in 1009 by Hakim, the Fatimid Caliph of Egypt. A new wave of Muslim aggression by the Seljuk Turks led to Christian persecution in the Holy Land and the invasion of the Byzantine Empire. The defeat of the Byzantines at the decisive Battle of Manzikert in 1071 gave the Seljuk Turks possession of Asia Minor. Nicaea and then Antioch fell to the Turks. Constantinople was vulnerable, and pilgrimages to the Holy Land abruptly ended. This led Byzantine Emperor Alexius I Comnenus to appeal to Pope Urban II for help. The Emperor sent his emissaries to the Pope's Council of Piacenza in the March of 1095, with a request for knights to defend the East.1-8
Healing the Schism
One of the most tragic events in Church history has been the Schism of 1054 between the Catholic Church in Rome of the West and the Byzantine Church in Constantinople of the East. What began as a conciliatory effort between Pope Leo IX and the Greek Patriarch Michael Cerularius ended in disaster in 1054. The abrasive papal envoy Cardinal Humbert delivered a Papal Bull of excommunication (after Leo IX had died), and laid it on the altar, right during the afternoon liturgy at the Church of Santa Sophia on Saturday July 16, 1054. The offended Greek Patriarch then excommunicated the papal envoy. While the event obviously did not end the relationship between the Eastern and Western Churches, it has become symbolic for the distrust and strain between the East and the West that developed through the centuries. 1, 2, 5-7, 9-12
On 11 May 330 Constantine renamed the Greek city of Byzantium in his honor, and Constantinople became the seat of the Holy Roman Emperor. There were now two primary centers of authority in the Empire, Church authority in Rome and civil authority in Constantinople. The Patriarch of Constantinople had the Emperor's ear.
The language of Rome was Latin, but that of Constantinople Greek.
There was a difference in perception of Church authority between the East and West. All of the early Christian Churches were followers of Jesus Christ from the time of the Apostles, and considered themselves one holy, catholic and apostolic Church. Each developed and retained their ancient and distinctive liturgies, rites, and customs. However, Rome asserted the Pontiff, as the representative of Peter, had supreme authority over all of Christianity, whereas the East considered the Pope, the Bishop of Rome and the representative of Peter, as presiding "with love, as a first among equals." Decisions made in the first seven ecumenical Councils of the Church were universally recognized by East and West. 9, 11-16
The language of Rome was Latin, but that of Constantinople Greek.
There was a difference in perception of Church authority between the East and West. All of the early Christian Churches were followers of Jesus Christ from the time of the Apostles, and considered themselves one holy, catholic and apostolic Church. Each developed and retained their ancient and distinctive liturgies, rites, and customs. However, Rome asserted the Pontiff, as the representative of Peter, had supreme authority over all of Christianity, whereas the East considered the Pope, the Bishop of Rome and the representative of Peter, as presiding "with love, as a first among equals." Decisions made in the first seven ecumenical Councils of the Church were universally recognized by East and West. 9, 11-16
The difference in perception of Church authority produced the conflict over the addition of the word filioque ("and the Son") to the Nicene Creed by the Roman Catholic Church. The Nicene Creed originated at the Council of Nicaea in 325, and was expanded to quote John 15:26, "the Holy Spirit proceeding from the Father" at the Council of Constantinople in 381, to form the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed
Theological thought on the Trinity progressed with time, particularly with St. Augustine, who saw the Holy Spirit as an expression of love between the Father and the Son. Charlemagne had the word filioque added to the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed, so the phrase read "the Holy Spirit who proceeds from the Father and the Son" (as Roman Catholics say today). The Eastern Churches claim that the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed "is the common possession of the whole church and that any change must be done by an ecumenical Council." 12
The naming of Charlemagne as the Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day 800 only deepened the rift between East and West, as this had been the title of the Byzantine Emperor in Constantinople since the days of Constantine!
The iconoclast controversy in the eighth century worsened matters, when the Eastern Emperor Leo III, influenced by Muslim and Jews, ordered the destruction of all Church images in 726. This was reversed by the Empress Irene and the seventh ecumenical Council, the second council of Nicaea in 787.
The excommunication of Pope Nicholas by the Patriarch Photius in 867, which was reversed within two years, signaled deepening East-West estrangement.
Pope Urban II saw the request by the Byzantine Emperor Alexius I Comnenus as an opportunity to heal the Schism of East and West, especially as Alexius promised he would take measures toward recognizing Rome once Constantinople was safe from the Turks. 1, 15
Theological thought on the Trinity progressed with time, particularly with St. Augustine, who saw the Holy Spirit as an expression of love between the Father and the Son. Charlemagne had the word filioque added to the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed, so the phrase read "the Holy Spirit who proceeds from the Father and the Son" (as Roman Catholics say today). The Eastern Churches claim that the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed "is the common possession of the whole church and that any change must be done by an ecumenical Council." 12
The naming of Charlemagne as the Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day 800 only deepened the rift between East and West, as this had been the title of the Byzantine Emperor in Constantinople since the days of Constantine!
The iconoclast controversy in the eighth century worsened matters, when the Eastern Emperor Leo III, influenced by Muslim and Jews, ordered the destruction of all Church images in 726. This was reversed by the Empress Irene and the seventh ecumenical Council, the second council of Nicaea in 787.
The excommunication of Pope Nicholas by the Patriarch Photius in 867, which was reversed within two years, signaled deepening East-West estrangement.
Pope Urban II saw the request by the Byzantine Emperor Alexius I Comnenus as an opportunity to heal the Schism of East and West, especially as Alexius promised he would take measures toward recognizing Rome once Constantinople was safe from the Turks. 1, 15
Penitential Warfare
How could the Pope justify a war when Christianity was a religion of peace?
This question even today produces anxiety!
The Ten Commandments direct "Thou shalt not kill."
While St. Basil and the early Church Fathers would never have accepted war, St. Augustine held that war was justified at the command of God. Unfortunately European warfare during the age of feudalism primarily involved Christians, noblemen and knights fighting each other over land, possessions, romance, or right of succession! The Church attempted to place some measure of control on warlike behavior by the institution of the Peace of God, which protected defenseless women, children, and the elderly; the Truce of God, which banned warfare on Sundays and holydays, as well as Advent and Lent; and the development of a Code of Chivalry for the proper conduct of knights. The knights' Code called for the knight to defend and obey the Church and Commandments and to be the champion of right and good against injustice and evil. The Church raised the reception of Christian knighthood to an honor through a Christian ceremony. 1, 5, 17, 18
This question even today produces anxiety!
The Ten Commandments direct "Thou shalt not kill."
While St. Basil and the early Church Fathers would never have accepted war, St. Augustine held that war was justified at the command of God. Unfortunately European warfare during the age of feudalism primarily involved Christians, noblemen and knights fighting each other over land, possessions, romance, or right of succession! The Church attempted to place some measure of control on warlike behavior by the institution of the Peace of God, which protected defenseless women, children, and the elderly; the Truce of God, which banned warfare on Sundays and holydays, as well as Advent and Lent; and the development of a Code of Chivalry for the proper conduct of knights. The knights' Code called for the knight to defend and obey the Church and Commandments and to be the champion of right and good against injustice and evil. The Church raised the reception of Christian knighthood to an honor through a Christian ceremony. 1, 5, 17, 18
Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085), following St. Augustine, developed the concept of "penitential warfare," whereby warfare was justified when performed in the service and defense of the Church and the faith. He offered absolution to those who died fighting for the Cross in the reconquest (reconquista) of Spain.7
But it was Pope Urban II who formally invoked penitential warfare - warfare in the service and defense of the Church for the remission of sins, when he called for the First Crusade on November 27, 1095.
But it was Pope Urban II who formally invoked penitential warfare - warfare in the service and defense of the Church for the remission of sins, when he called for the First Crusade on November 27, 1095.
THE ACTUAL CRUSADES
There were eight major Crusades that departed Europe for the Holy Land, with several campaigns interspersed between 1096 and 1291. This paper will primarily focus on the successful First Crusade, review the Third and Fourth Crusades, and present a capsule of the remaining five.
The First and Third Crusades were the best described of the expeditions to the Holy Land. Three primary sources for the First Crusade include the chronicles of Raymond of Aguilers, who accompanied Bishop Adhemar de Puy and Raymond of Toulouse; Anna Comnena, daughter of Alexius, the Byzantine Emperor; and Fulcher of Chartres, who attended the Council of Clermont and accompanied Stephen of Blois on the First Crusade. Other sources contemporary to the First Crusade include William of Tyre and Matthew of Edessa.
There are both Christian and Muslim sources for the Third Crusade. Richard, a canon of the Augustinian priory of Holy Trinity in London, recorded the expedition of King Richard I of England, whereas Imad al-Isfahani of the Imperial Court of Saladin provided the Muslim viewpoint. Pope Gregory VIII called for the Third Crusade in his encyclical Audita tremendi. Other primary sources for the Third Crusade include Roger of Howden, Peter of Blois and Gerald of Wales. 19
The First and Third Crusades were the best described of the expeditions to the Holy Land. Three primary sources for the First Crusade include the chronicles of Raymond of Aguilers, who accompanied Bishop Adhemar de Puy and Raymond of Toulouse; Anna Comnena, daughter of Alexius, the Byzantine Emperor; and Fulcher of Chartres, who attended the Council of Clermont and accompanied Stephen of Blois on the First Crusade. Other sources contemporary to the First Crusade include William of Tyre and Matthew of Edessa.
There are both Christian and Muslim sources for the Third Crusade. Richard, a canon of the Augustinian priory of Holy Trinity in London, recorded the expedition of King Richard I of England, whereas Imad al-Isfahani of the Imperial Court of Saladin provided the Muslim viewpoint. Pope Gregory VIII called for the Third Crusade in his encyclical Audita tremendi. Other primary sources for the Third Crusade include Roger of Howden, Peter of Blois and Gerald of Wales. 19
The First Crusade (1096-1099)
Just as Pope Urban II had finished his speech at Claremont, Adhemar de Monteil, Bishop of Puy, volunteered for the expedition. The Pope nominated him to be the Papal Legate and head of the Crusade, to ensure that the Church would lead the effort. The choice was an excellent one, as Adhemar of Puy proved to be fair-minded, calm, and diplomatic in his attempt to coordinate the major armies that crossed Europe in different routes and assembled in Constantinople by May of 1097.19-21
Raymond of St. Gilles, Count of Toulouse, was the first who "took up the cross." He made a vow to God, and pledged his service to the Pope and his loyalty to Bishop Adhemar of Puy; the Bishop travelled with Raymond for the entire Crusade. They left France in October of 1096 and crossed the Alps into Dalmatia and the Balkan states, through Thessalonica, reaching Constantinople in April of 1097.19-21
Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lower Lorraine, and his younger brother Baldwin of Boulogne, took the northern route through Germany, and followed the Danube River through Hungary, arriving in Constantinople just before Christmas 1096.
Hugh of Vermandois, brother of King Philip I of France, left from Paris, traveled through Italy to the port of Bari, and sailed to Dyrrhacium in the Balkan States, and then by land reached Constantinople. Later, Robert, Duke of Normandy, his cousin Stephen, Count of Blois, and his cousin Robert II, Count of Flanders travelled the same route and reached Constantinople in early May of 1097.
Bohemond of Taranto, his nephew Tancred, and the Normans of Southern Italy sailed to Dyrrhacium and then traveled by land, reaching Constantinople in April 1096.
Those who joined the Crusades were truly motivated by their love of Christ. With the exception of Bohemond of Taranto, religious fervor was the source of inspiration throughout the Crusade, although the greed for earthly riches and petty rivalries of the leaders would create troubles for the Crusaders far beyond Adhemar's control.22
Raymond of St. Gilles, Count of Toulouse, was the first who "took up the cross." He made a vow to God, and pledged his service to the Pope and his loyalty to Bishop Adhemar of Puy; the Bishop travelled with Raymond for the entire Crusade. They left France in October of 1096 and crossed the Alps into Dalmatia and the Balkan states, through Thessalonica, reaching Constantinople in April of 1097.19-21
Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lower Lorraine, and his younger brother Baldwin of Boulogne, took the northern route through Germany, and followed the Danube River through Hungary, arriving in Constantinople just before Christmas 1096.
Hugh of Vermandois, brother of King Philip I of France, left from Paris, traveled through Italy to the port of Bari, and sailed to Dyrrhacium in the Balkan States, and then by land reached Constantinople. Later, Robert, Duke of Normandy, his cousin Stephen, Count of Blois, and his cousin Robert II, Count of Flanders travelled the same route and reached Constantinople in early May of 1097.
Bohemond of Taranto, his nephew Tancred, and the Normans of Southern Italy sailed to Dyrrhacium and then traveled by land, reaching Constantinople in April 1096.
Those who joined the Crusades were truly motivated by their love of Christ. With the exception of Bohemond of Taranto, religious fervor was the source of inspiration throughout the Crusade, although the greed for earthly riches and petty rivalries of the leaders would create troubles for the Crusaders far beyond Adhemar's control.22
MAP OF CONSTANTINOPLE TO THE HOLY LAND | |||||
Emperor Alexius deftly handled the Crusaders, and dispatched them across the Bosporus Straits into Asia. The Crusaders laid seige to Nicaea, a major stronghold of the Seljuk Turks. The seige induced them to negotiate with Alexius, who took back Nicaea in June of 1097. Alexius did not allow the Crusaders to enter Nicaea, a decision which affected his future relationship with them.19-21
Following a victory at Dorylaeum which routed the Turks, the Crusaders faced the arduous task of crossing the mountainous terrain of Anatolia (modern Turkey) in Asia Minor. The goal to reach Antioch took months to accomplish, and was marked by the Crusaders taking two different routes. Baldwin of Boulogne, Godfrey's younger brother, went through Armenia, and, setting out on his own conquest, ended up capturing Edessa. After marrying an Armenian princess, he was invited by the people to rule. The first Crusader state, the County of Edessa, had been established.4
The main Crusading force finally reached Antioch, on the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea in October of 1097. The first Patriarch of Antioch was St. Peter himself, and following the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD, became important to early Christianity. The followers of Christ were first called Christians in Antioch (Acts 11:26). Matthew wrote his Gospel there, and Paul set out on his three missionary journeys from Antioch. St. Ignatius of Antioch established the order of Bishop, Presbyter, and Deacon about 110 AD. The Eastern Catholic Maronite Church of Lebanon originated in Antioch.23-25
Following a victory at Dorylaeum which routed the Turks, the Crusaders faced the arduous task of crossing the mountainous terrain of Anatolia (modern Turkey) in Asia Minor. The goal to reach Antioch took months to accomplish, and was marked by the Crusaders taking two different routes. Baldwin of Boulogne, Godfrey's younger brother, went through Armenia, and, setting out on his own conquest, ended up capturing Edessa. After marrying an Armenian princess, he was invited by the people to rule. The first Crusader state, the County of Edessa, had been established.4
The main Crusading force finally reached Antioch, on the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea in October of 1097. The first Patriarch of Antioch was St. Peter himself, and following the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD, became important to early Christianity. The followers of Christ were first called Christians in Antioch (Acts 11:26). Matthew wrote his Gospel there, and Paul set out on his three missionary journeys from Antioch. St. Ignatius of Antioch established the order of Bishop, Presbyter, and Deacon about 110 AD. The Eastern Catholic Maronite Church of Lebanon originated in Antioch.23-25
Antioch's defenses were formidable, and it took nine months before its walls could be stormed. Rivalries began, as Bohemond of Taranto wanted Antioch for himself, while Raymond of Toulouse argued that it should be handed back to the Byzantines, as agreed upon in Constantinople. Following a bribe by Bohemond of one of the Turks, the Crusaders scaled the walls and invaded Antioch in June of 1098.
The town became a bloodbath as every Turk was massacred. No sooner than they had taken over Antioch when they were besieged within the city by an invading Turkish army from Mosul. Trapped within the walls, disease and discouragement set in.
It was then that the Holy Lance, the lance that pierced the side of Christ, was discovered in the Church of St. Peter. Taken as Divine intervention, the Crusaders were rallied. Led by Bishop of Adhemar of Puy carrying the Holy Lance, the Crusaders proved invincible. The knights charged, mounted on their horses, and, pressing next to each other, routed the Turks. The cavalry charge was a formidable weapon for the Crusaders throughout their campaigns in the Holy Land.21, 26, 27
Bishop Adhemar of Puy died from an illness in August of 1098, and his leadership was sorely missed. When the Fatimids of Egypt heard of the collapse of the Turks, they invaded Palestine and captured Jerusalem in the Fall of 1098. The Crusaders began squabbling for the next few months, until finally Bohemond of Taranto achieved his goal of taking Antioch for himself. He progressed no further: the second Crusader state, the Principality of Antioch, was established.25-27
Raymond of Toulouse was left the undisputed leader of the Crusaders, and set out for Jerusalem January 13, 1099. Raymond walked barefoot, appropriate for a leader of a pilgrimage. He traveled safely on the coast to Tripoli, Lebanon, where the Emir of Tripoli purchased immunity and gave them supplies. While there, he discovered the Maronites, an Eastern Catholic community in the mountains of Lebanon that had resisted Turkish rule, and who confirmed loyalty to the Pope in 1181. Raymond and the Crusaders passed through Beirut, resisted an attack in Sidon, but traveled through Tyre, Lebanon without difficulty. They sent off Tancred and Baldwin of LeBourg who liberated Bethlehem on June 5, 1099, to the joy of the entirely Christian population. 26-28
The town became a bloodbath as every Turk was massacred. No sooner than they had taken over Antioch when they were besieged within the city by an invading Turkish army from Mosul. Trapped within the walls, disease and discouragement set in.
It was then that the Holy Lance, the lance that pierced the side of Christ, was discovered in the Church of St. Peter. Taken as Divine intervention, the Crusaders were rallied. Led by Bishop of Adhemar of Puy carrying the Holy Lance, the Crusaders proved invincible. The knights charged, mounted on their horses, and, pressing next to each other, routed the Turks. The cavalry charge was a formidable weapon for the Crusaders throughout their campaigns in the Holy Land.21, 26, 27
Bishop Adhemar of Puy died from an illness in August of 1098, and his leadership was sorely missed. When the Fatimids of Egypt heard of the collapse of the Turks, they invaded Palestine and captured Jerusalem in the Fall of 1098. The Crusaders began squabbling for the next few months, until finally Bohemond of Taranto achieved his goal of taking Antioch for himself. He progressed no further: the second Crusader state, the Principality of Antioch, was established.25-27
Raymond of Toulouse was left the undisputed leader of the Crusaders, and set out for Jerusalem January 13, 1099. Raymond walked barefoot, appropriate for a leader of a pilgrimage. He traveled safely on the coast to Tripoli, Lebanon, where the Emir of Tripoli purchased immunity and gave them supplies. While there, he discovered the Maronites, an Eastern Catholic community in the mountains of Lebanon that had resisted Turkish rule, and who confirmed loyalty to the Pope in 1181. Raymond and the Crusaders passed through Beirut, resisted an attack in Sidon, but traveled through Tyre, Lebanon without difficulty. They sent off Tancred and Baldwin of LeBourg who liberated Bethlehem on June 5, 1099, to the joy of the entirely Christian population. 26-28
The Crusaders, known to the Muslims as the Franj or Franks, reached Jerusalem on Tuesday, June 7, 1099, and began their siege. Before their arrival, the Fatimid governor evacuated the Christians from the city, but allowed the Jews to stay. Raymond of Toulouse set up post on Mount Zion. Robert of Normandy took up station on the northern wall opposite the Gate of Flowers (Herod's Gate), with Robert of Flanders on his right at the Damascus (St. Stephen's) Gate. Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lorraine, was joined by his brother, Eustace of Boulogne, and Tancred, and together they covered the northwest to the Jaffa Gate. Morale sank, as an initial attack by the Crusaders failed, and water became scarce. A Genoese fleet arrived with materials to help them scale the walls of the heavily fortified city. But then a priest had a vision of the deceased Bishop Adhemar, who urged the Crusaders to fast and then walk barefoot around the city to atone for their sins. 26, 28, 29
The Crusaders eagerly complied, and encouraged, they attacked the city, and two days later, on July 15, 1099, entered the city of Jerusalem. The Fatimid governor, who had withdrawn into the Tower of David, begged Raymond for his life, and was allowed to escape. Maddened after three years of suffering and frustration, the Crusaders massacred both Muslim and Jew within the city.21, 27, 30, 31
The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, in the northwest quarter of the old city at the end of Via Dolorosa, was once again in Christian hands. The Crusaders thanked God in a solemn ceremony. Godfrey of Bouillon was chosen as the ruler, taking the title of Defender of the Holy Sepulchre. Jerusalem became the third and principal Crusader state.
The First Crusade, the only successful one, was over, but left a certain irony. The two that began the effort never heard the news - Pope Urban II died just two weeks later, before word reached Rome, and Bishop Adhemar had died in Antioch. Many of the Crusaders, having fulfilled their vow, returned home.32
The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, in the northwest quarter of the old city at the end of Via Dolorosa, was once again in Christian hands. The Crusaders thanked God in a solemn ceremony. Godfrey of Bouillon was chosen as the ruler, taking the title of Defender of the Holy Sepulchre. Jerusalem became the third and principal Crusader state.
The First Crusade, the only successful one, was over, but left a certain irony. The two that began the effort never heard the news - Pope Urban II died just two weeks later, before word reached Rome, and Bishop Adhemar had died in Antioch. Many of the Crusaders, having fulfilled their vow, returned home.32
The Crusader States and The Military Orders
Godfrey consolidated the territory around Jerusalem. Hearing of an advancing Egyptian force to recover Jerusalem, the Crusaders launched a surprise attack and routed the Egyptians near Ascalon in August 1099. Godfrey died after only a year on July 18, 1100. Emissaries were sent to his brother Baldwin, the ruler of the County of Edessa, who gave Edessa to his cousin Baldwin of Le Bourg and headed for Jerusalem. Baldwin was crowned King of Jerusalem on Christmas Day, 1100, and the Kingdom of Jerusalem was established.
Raymond of Toulouse headed North and governed Latakia with a representative of the Emperor. The only one to stay loyal to Emperor Alexius, he was invited to Constantinople, and turned over Latakia to the Byzantines. Upon his return, he set his sights on Tripoli, and built a fortress called Mount Pilgrim near the city. Raymond died in 1105 before Tripoli was conquered, but his son Bertrand of Toulouse, with the aid of King Baldwin, took over Tripoli on July 12, 1109, and the fourth Crusader state, the County of Tripoli, was established. 32, 33
Raymond of Toulouse headed North and governed Latakia with a representative of the Emperor. The only one to stay loyal to Emperor Alexius, he was invited to Constantinople, and turned over Latakia to the Byzantines. Upon his return, he set his sights on Tripoli, and built a fortress called Mount Pilgrim near the city. Raymond died in 1105 before Tripoli was conquered, but his son Bertrand of Toulouse, with the aid of King Baldwin, took over Tripoli on July 12, 1109, and the fourth Crusader state, the County of Tripoli, was established. 32, 33
The four Crusader states of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, Edessa, Antioch, and Tripoli collectively became known as Outremer, outre-mer being the French words for "overseas" (see Map).
One of the positive elements of the Crusade was the restoration of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Fifty years after the capture of Jerusalem, the Crusaders completed and dedicated the church in Romanesque architecture on 15 July 1149. The Church one visits today is the one built by the Crusaders!
The Crusader states lived a fragile existence, for, once the lands were conquered, most of the Crusaders, having fulfilled their vows, went home to Europe. But they were able to survive because of Muslim disunity. They were quick to realize that the only chance for long-term survival of the four Crusader states was mutual cooperation, and the presence of a stable military force. An important event was the foundation of the three military orders, instituted to defend Outremer and protect the renewed flow of pilgrims into the Holy Land. The military orders were composed of monks who served both as knights or performed clerical and civic functions, as well as the lay who assisted the knights.
The first order were the Knights of St. John or Hospitallers. Merchants from Amalfi, Italy built a hospital in Jerusalem in 1070, the Hospital of St. John. Monks provided staffing for the hospital; they would eventually evolve into the Knights Hospitaller, who wore a white cross, and protected the pilgrims who entered Jerusalem. The Knights Templar were instituted in 1119 by the French knights, and were housed in the Temple of Solomon. They wore a red cross, and were responsible for protecting pilgrims going to and from the Holy Land. A group of German crusaders joined with members of the German Hospital in 1190 to begin the Teutonic Knights, formally known as the Brothers of the Hospital of St. Mary in Jerusalem. They maintained their headquarters in the City of Acre until 1291. 3-5
One of the positive elements of the Crusade was the restoration of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Fifty years after the capture of Jerusalem, the Crusaders completed and dedicated the church in Romanesque architecture on 15 July 1149. The Church one visits today is the one built by the Crusaders!
The Crusader states lived a fragile existence, for, once the lands were conquered, most of the Crusaders, having fulfilled their vows, went home to Europe. But they were able to survive because of Muslim disunity. They were quick to realize that the only chance for long-term survival of the four Crusader states was mutual cooperation, and the presence of a stable military force. An important event was the foundation of the three military orders, instituted to defend Outremer and protect the renewed flow of pilgrims into the Holy Land. The military orders were composed of monks who served both as knights or performed clerical and civic functions, as well as the lay who assisted the knights.
The first order were the Knights of St. John or Hospitallers. Merchants from Amalfi, Italy built a hospital in Jerusalem in 1070, the Hospital of St. John. Monks provided staffing for the hospital; they would eventually evolve into the Knights Hospitaller, who wore a white cross, and protected the pilgrims who entered Jerusalem. The Knights Templar were instituted in 1119 by the French knights, and were housed in the Temple of Solomon. They wore a red cross, and were responsible for protecting pilgrims going to and from the Holy Land. A group of German crusaders joined with members of the German Hospital in 1190 to begin the Teutonic Knights, formally known as the Brothers of the Hospital of St. Mary in Jerusalem. They maintained their headquarters in the City of Acre until 1291. 3-5
